The concept of 'ahimsa' was born in India and is her great gift to the world. Like all her other significant spiritual concepts it has evolved from simple beginnings into a complex matrix of meaning and practice.

The best researched work, in the English language, on the genesis and evolution of Ahimsa that I have come across is the Finnish Scholar Unto Tathinen's 'Ahimsa - Non Violence in the Indian tradition'. In it he points out that in early Vedic literature, there are many more references to 'Himsa' (violence) than to 'Ahimsa', but that 'Himsa' is used mainly in prayers to the Gods -the benevolent of whom are called 'ahimsana'- to save them from the 'himsa' of rakshasas (demons), dasyus (thieves), wild animals, natural calamities etc.

Whereas Dr. T.W.Rhys Davids claims the earliest reference to Ahimsa is in the Chandogya Upanishad, (dated to about the 8th century BC) Tahtinen states that earliest said reference is in Kapisthala Katha Samhita which is pre-Upanishadic. He concurs with scholars like S.Piggot, A.L.Basham and G.C. Pande that the practice of non violence dates back to the Indus civilization, excavations at Mohenjodharo and Harappa having revealed a highly developed civilization in which animals and trees were worshipped and lethal weapons were surprisingly scarce.

The Chandogya Upanishad lists ahimsa as the fourth of five virtues [tapa (penance), danam,(alms) arjavam (honesty), ahimsa & satyavachanam (truthfulness)] to be practiced in the 'yajna' of life. It states that he who practices 'ahimsa' towards all creatures, except at 'tirthas' (holy places), does not return to the world again. This indicates that animal sacrifices at 'tirthas' were within the ambit of 'ahimsa'. However, in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita 'pashu ahimsa' is mentioned even in the context of sacrifice. This suggests, according to Tahtinen that animal sacrifices were a later development, most probably of the Brahmana period.

According to Manu, animal sacrifices leads a "twice born", as also the slaughtered animal, to the "uttama" (highest) position. Similarly, killing of animals which cause destruction to crops and domestic herds and for earning one's livlihood, was permissible.

In the Mahabharata 'himsa' done to an evil doer (asadhu himsa) is not only permissible but also prescribed as an inescapable duty particularly for Khastriyas. There are numerous urgings, including from Lord Krishna himself, not to shirk this duty. However, whereas this epic is replete with brutal violence of every type it ends with Bhisma telling Yudhistira from his bed of arrows,that "Nothing is greater than ahimsa". In fact, as Gandhi saw it, the moral of this great epic, next to its primary one of confronting evil whenever and wherever one is faced with it, is that in war there are no real victors only death and destruction.

By the time Jainism and Buddhism appeared on the Indian spiritual horizon animal sacrifices had reached horrendous proportions. The prevalent theory and practice was the larger the animal sacrificed the greater and longer lasting its spiritual benefits. There are references even to rhinoceros being sacrificed. The only animal exempted was the cow. One of the important planks of the two new religions, which essentially were dissident movements within Hinduism, was opposition to animal sacrifices.

With the advent of Jainism ahimsa was made mandatory in respect of all forms of life (sarva bhuta) and raised to the status of prime virtue ("Ahimsa paramo dharma") both for monks and layman. Jain ethics can be said to be built on non violence, because all other moral virtues are included as specific aspects of non violence. The first vow of a Jain monk is " I renounce all killing of living beings, whether movable or immovable. Nor shall I myself kill living beings nor cause others to do it, nor consent to it". Jain ethics prescribes non-resistance for monks when faced with violence of all kinds, even death. The Acaaranga Sutra requires a monk attacked by robbers to act "like a hero", and neither get angry nor vindictive. Animal sacrifices of all types were proscribed and considered 'ajnana' It was Jainism which gestated vegetarianism in India. Some of its sects are so strict that even eating honey is taboo because in collecting it young bees are killed. No meals can be had after sunset as night insects are attracted to lamps and get burned. No root vegetables can be eaten as earthworms and other live organisms are killed when they are pulled out of the earth. No other Indian religious community has gone so far safeguard animal, reptile and insect life.

Buddhism, with its emphasis on "Dukkha Nirodha" (elimination of suffering), gave 'ahimsa' a wider, more positive meaning by enunciating the concept of compassion (karunataa). This not only forbade all types of himsa, including avihimsa (mental injury) to all sentient beings, - "Hurt not others with that which pains thyself" the Buddha had said - but also required followers to constantly strive to remove the suffering of others. All suffering was said to be caused by ignorance of the nature of reality and the craving, attachment, and grasping that arises from such ignorance. Suffering can be ended by overcoming ignorance and attachment. Thus, the roots of all dukka as also of himsa are in the mind. Evil and violent thoughts always precede evil and violent deeds. What is essential therefore is strict mind control. Because of this, Fritjof Capra, author of 'The Tao of Physics' describes Buddhism as "psychotherapy rather than metaphysics."

Under the combined impact of Jainism and Buddhism, nearly all animal and bird sacrifices ceased in Hinduism and by the time of Shankara were replaced with coconuts, fruits and flowers. Arnold Toynbee, in his book 'A Historians approach to Religion' terms this Hinduism as "post Buddhaic"

The next great triumph for 'Ahimsa' after Mahavira and Buddha, both of whom were royal princes, commenced preaching their respective gospels, came with Emperor Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism in 260 BC. Thereafter he strenuously propagated Buddhism within his realms and also abroad through 'Dhamma Mahamattas', rock edicts and other means. He sent his own son Mahinda to Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks to Nepal, Burma, Central Asia, and diplomatic missions to Syria ( of Antiochus II Theos), Egypt ( of Ptolemy II Philadephus), Macedonia ( of Antigonus Gonatas) and Epirus ( of Alexander). Romila Thapar has indicated that whereas these diplomatic missions were primarily meant to promote the "dhamma" they also promoted knowledge and use of medicinal plants by carrying with them packets of seeds and tree cuttings. She quotes Pliny that the Selucids attempted to grow some Indian plants such as amomum and nardum.

In Sri Lanka, Mahinda achieved early success when King Devanampiya Tissa heard his sermon in a park on the outskirts of Anuradhapura, then capital of Sri Lanka, and decided to convert to Buddhism. Soon therafter Sri Lanka's first Buddhist Monastery, later revered as the Mahavihara, was established here. Subsequently King Tissa requested Emperor Ashoka for a sapling of the Bodhi Tree. The latter obliged and sent the sapling with his daughter Sangamitta. It was planted with much ceremony at Anuradhapura. Later a tooth of the Buddha was also received, to house which the great Temple of the Tooth was built at Kandy.